where it usually goes wrong
the six that cost
the most marks
moles and stoichiometry
almost everything routes through moles. the limiting reagent is what decides the answer, and it is not always the smaller mass.
equilibrium
k tells you where it settles, q tells you which way it is going. le chatelier is a prediction, not a calculation.
acids, bases and buffers
ph, pka and henderson-hasselbalch. a buffer resists change because both halves of the pair are present, which is also why titration curves flatten.
thermodynamics
enthalpy, entropy and gibbs free energy. spontaneous means Δg negative, not fast.
redox
half reactions balanced separately, then electrons matched. balancing in acid and in base differ only at the end.
gas laws
ideal gas assumptions hold until pressure is high or temperature is low, which is exactly when the question asks.
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